Python state-machine design

It probably depends on how complex your state machine is. For simple state machines, a dict of dicts (of event-keys to state-keys for DFAs, or event-keys to lists/sets/tuples of state-keys for NFAs) will probably be the simplest thing to write and understand.

For more complex state machines, I’ve heard good things about SMC, which can compile declarative state machine descriptions to code in a wide variety of languages, including Python.

There is this design pattern for using decorators to implement state machines. From the description on the page:

Decorators are used to specify which methods are the event handlers for the class.

There is example code on the page as well (it is quite long so I won’t paste it here).

I think S. Lott’s answer is a much better way to implement a state machine, but if you still want to continue with your approach, using (state,event) as the key for your dict is better. Modifying your code:

class HandlerFsm(object):

  _fsm = {
    ("state_a","event"): "next_state",
    #...
  }

I wouldn’t think to reach for a finite state machine for handling XML. The usual way to do this, I think, is to use a stack:

class TrackInfoHandler(object):
    def __init__(self):
        self._stack=[]

    ## ================================== Event callbacks

    def startElement(self, name, attrs):
        cls = self.elementClasses[name]
        self._stack.append(cls(**attrs))

    def characters(self, ch):
        self._stack[-1].addCharacters(ch)

    def endElement(self, name):
        e = self._stack.pop()
        e.close()
        if self._stack:
            self._stack[-1].addElement(e)

For each kind of element, you just need a class that supports the addCharacters, addElement, and close methods.

EDIT: To clarify, yes I do mean to argue that finite state machines are usually the wrong answer, that as a general-purpose programming technique they’re rubbish and you should stay away.

There are a few really well-understood, cleanly-delineated problems for which FSMs are a nice solution. lex, for example, is good stuff.

That said, FSMs typically don’t cope well with change. Suppose someday you want to add a bit of state, perhaps a “have we seen element X yet?” flag. In the code above, you add a boolean attribute to the appropriate element class and you’re done. In a finite state machine, you double the number of states and transitions.

Problems that require finite state at first very often evolve to require even more state, like maybe a number, at which point either your FSM scheme is toast, or worse, you evolve it into some kind of generalized state machine, and at that point you’re really in trouble. The further you go, the more your rules start to act like code—but code in a slow interpreted language you invented that nobody else knows, for which there’s no debugger and no tools.

In the April, 2009 issue of Python Magazine, I wrote an article on embedding a State DSL within Python, using pyparsing and imputil. This code would allow you to write the module trafficLight.pystate:

# trafficLight.pystate

# define state machine
statemachine TrafficLight:
    Red -> Green
    Green -> Yellow
    Yellow -> Red

# define some class level constants
Red.carsCanGo = False
Yellow.carsCanGo = True
Green.carsCanGo = True

Red.delay = wait(20)
Yellow.delay = wait(3)
Green.delay = wait(15)

and the DSL compiler would create all the necessary TrafficLight, Red, Yellow, and Green classes, and the proper state transition methods. Code could call these classes using something like this:

import statemachine
import trafficLight

tl = trafficLight.Red()
for i in range(6):
    print tl, "GO" if tl.carsCanGo else "STOP"
    tl.delay()
    tl = tl.next_state()

(Unfortunately, imputil has been dropped in Python 3.)

The following code is a really simple solution. The only interesting part is:

   def next_state(self,cls):
      self.__class__ = cls

All the logic for each state is contained in a separate class. The ‘state’ is changed by replacing the ‘__class__‘ of the running instance.

#!/usr/bin/env python

class State(object):
   call = 0 # shared state variable
   def next_state(self,cls):
      print '-> %s' % (cls.__name__,),
      self.__class__ = cls

   def show_state(self,i):
      print '%2d:%2d:%s' % (self.call,i,self.__class__.__name__),

class State1(State):
   __call = 0  # state variable
   def __call__(self,ok):
      self.show_state(self.__call)
      self.call += 1
      self.__call += 1
      # transition
      if ok: self.next_state(State2)
      print '' # force new line

class State2(State):
   __call = 0
   def __call__(self,ok):
      self.show_state(self.__call)
      self.call += 1
      self.__call += 1
      # transition
      if ok: self.next_state(State3)
      else: self.next_state(State1)
      print '' # force new line

class State3(State):
   __call = 0
   def __call__(self,ok):
      self.show_state(self.__call)
      self.call += 1
      self.__call += 1
      # transition
      if not ok: self.next_state(State2)
      print '' # force new line

if __name__ == '__main__':
   sm = State1()
   for v in [1,1,1,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,0,1,0,0,1,0,0]:
      sm(v)
   print '---------'
   print vars(sm

Result:

 0: 0:State1 -> State2 
 1: 0:State2 -> State3 
 2: 0:State3 
 3: 1:State3 -> State2 
 4: 1:State2 -> State1 
 5: 1:State1 
 6: 2:State1 -> State2 
 7: 2:State2 -> State3 
 8: 2:State3 -> State2 
 9: 3:State2 -> State3 
10: 3:State3 
11: 4:State3 -> State2 
12: 4:State2 -> State1 
13: 3:State1 -> State2 
14: 5:State2 -> State1 
15: 4:State1 
16: 5:State1 -> State2 
17: 6:State2 -> State1 
18: 6:State1 
---------
{'_State1__call': 7, 'call': 19, '_State3__call': 5, '_State2__call': 7}

I think that the tool PySCXML needs a closer look too.

This project uses the W3C definition: State Chart XML (SCXML): State Machine Notation for Control Abstraction

SCXML provides a generic state-machine based execution environment based on CCXML and Harel State Tables

Currently, SCXML is a working draft; but chances are quite high that it is getting a W3C recommendation soon (it is the 9th draft).

Another interesting point to highlight is that there is an Apache Commons project aimed at creating and maintaining a Java SCXML engine capable of executing a state machine defined using a SCXML document, while abstracting out the environment interfaces…

And for certain other tools, supporting this technology will emerge in the future when SCXML is leaving its draft-status…

Other related projects:

• http://fsme.sourceforge.net/

• https://code.google.com/p/visio2python/

You can paint state-machine and then use it in your code.

I also was not happy with the current options for state_machines so I wrote the state_machine library.

You can install it by pip install state_machine and use it like so:

@acts_as_state_machine
class Person():
    name = 'Billy'

    sleeping = State(initial=True)
    running = State()
    cleaning = State()

    run = Event(from_states=sleeping, to_state=running)
    cleanup = Event(from_states=running, to_state=cleaning)
    sleep = Event(from_states=(running, cleaning), to_state=sleeping)

    @before('sleep')
    def do_one_thing(self):
        print "{} is sleepy".format(self.name)

    @before('sleep')
    def do_another_thing(self):
        print "{} is REALLY sleepy".format(self.name)

    @after('sleep')
    def snore(self):
        print "Zzzzzzzzzzzz"

    @after('sleep')
    def big_snore(self):
        print "Zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz"

person = Person()
print person.current_state == person.sleeping       # True
print person.is_sleeping                            # True
print person.is_running                             # False
person.run()
print person.is_running                             # True
person.sleep()

# Billy is sleepy
# Billy is REALLY sleepy
# Zzzzzzzzzzzz
# Zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz

print person.is_sleeping                            # True

I would definitely not recommend implementing such a well known pattern yourself. Just go for an open source implementation like transitions and wrap another class around it if you need custom features. In this post I explain why I prefer this particular implementation and its features.

Here is a solution for “statefull objects” I’ve come up with, but it is rather inefficient for your intended purpose because state changes are relatively expensive. However, it may work well for objects which change state infrequently or undergo only a bounded number of state changes. The advantage is that once the state is changed, there is no redundant indirection.

class T:
    """
    Descendant of `object` that rectifies `__new__` overriding.

    This class is intended to be listed as the last base class (just
    before the implicit `object`).  It is a part of a workaround for

      * https://bugs.python.org/issue36827
    """

    @staticmethod
    def __new__(cls, *_args, **_kwargs):
        return object.__new__(cls)

class Stateful:
    """
    Abstract base class (or mixin) for "stateful" classes.

    Subclasses must implement `InitState` mixin.
    """

    @staticmethod
    def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
        # XXX: see https://stackoverflow.com/a/9639512
        class CurrentStateProxy(cls.InitState):
            @staticmethod
            def _set_state(state_cls=cls.InitState):
                __class__.__bases__ = (state_cls,)

        class Eigenclass(CurrentStateProxy, cls):
            __new__ = None  # just in case

        return super(__class__, cls).__new__(Eigenclass, *args, **kwargs)

# XXX: see https://bugs.python.org/issue36827 for the reason for `T`.
class StatefulThing(Stateful, T):
    class StateA:
        """First state mixin."""

        def say_hello(self):
            self._say("Hello!")
            self.hello_count += 1
            self._set_state(self.StateB)
            return True

        def say_goodbye(self):
            self._say("Another goodbye?")
            return False

    class StateB:
        """Second state mixin."""

        def say_hello(self):
            self._say("Another hello?")
            return False

        def say_goodbye(self):
            self._say("Goodbye!")
            self.goodbye_count += 1
            self._set_state(self.StateA)
            return True

    # This one is required by `Stateful`.
    class InitState(StateA):
        """Third state mixin -- the initial state."""

        def say_goodbye(self):
            self._say("Why?")
            return False

    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name
        self.hello_count = self.goodbye_count = 0

    def _say(self, message):
        print("{}: {}".format(self.name, message))

    def say_hello_followed_by_goodbye(self):
        self.say_hello() and self.say_goodbye()

# ----------
# ## Demo ##
# ----------
if __name__ == "__main__":
    t1 = StatefulThing("t1")
    t2 = StatefulThing("t2")
    print("> t1, say hello.")
    t1.say_hello()
    print("> t2, say goodbye.")
    t2.say_goodbye()
    print("> t2, say hello.")
    t2.say_hello()
    print("> t1, say hello.")
    t1.say_hello()
    print("> t1, say hello followed by goodbye.")
    t1.say_hello_followed_by_goodbye()
    print("> t2, say goodbye.")
    t2.say_goodbye()
    print("> t2, say hello followed by goodbye.")
    t2.say_hello_followed_by_goodbye()
    print("> t1, say goodbye.")
    t1.say_goodbye()
    print("> t2, say hello.")
    t2.say_hello()
    print("---")
    print( "t1 said {} hellos and {} goodbyes."
           .format(t1.hello_count, t1.goodbye_count) )
    print( "t2 said {} hellos and {} goodbyes."
           .format(t2.hello_count, t2.goodbye_count) )

    # Expected output:
    #
    #     > t1, say hello.
    #     t1: Hello!
    #     > t2, say goodbye.
    #     t2: Why?
    #     > t2, say hello.
    #     t2: Hello!
    #     > t1, say hello.
    #     t1: Another hello?
    #     > t1, say hello followed by goodbye.
    #     t1: Another hello?
    #     > t2, say goodbye.
    #     t2: Goodbye!
    #     > t2, say hello followed by goodbye.
    #     t2: Hello!
    #     t2: Goodbye!
    #     > t1, say goodbye.
    #     t1: Goodbye!
    #     > t2, say hello.
    #     t2: Hello!
    #     ---
    #     t1 said 1 hellos and 1 goodbyes.
    #     t2 said 3 hellos and 2 goodbyes.

I’ve posted a “request for remarks” here.